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1. |
3 |
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2. |
5 |
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3. |
8 |
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3.1. |
Maps and digital data for early decision-making |
8 |
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3.2. |
Graphical Maps: an excerpt from the library list |
9 |
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3.3 |
Digital Data of the Six Project Countries |
11 |
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3.4 |
Maps for Watershed Management |
15 |
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4. |
17 |
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4.1 |
Information on Information - Sources of data in each country |
17 |
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4.2 |
National Data |
17 |
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4.3 |
Regional Data |
18 |
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5. |
19 |
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6. |
20 |
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7. |
21 |
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8. |
22 |
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8.1 |
Availability |
22 |
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8.2 |
National mapping |
23 |
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8.3 |
Internet |
23 |
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8.4 |
Recommendations on geographic information for feasibility study and investment projects |
24 |
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9. |
25 |
The purpose of geographical information is to bring out and ensure an increased understanding of decision-making regarding the environment, human population and future options.
Technically, one can say that the geographic information system (GIS) is a way to tie the information on a known location, using a computer and software. Geographic information is mainly electronic information in digital format.
Map atlases are a good example of geographical information. In the case of watersheds, the information the project has been using has the same parameters. This is especially the case in the first part of the work. Looking into an old Atlas of Finland, made by the Finnish Geographical Society in 1899, one notes that the topics dealt with are much the same as the topics the project has looked into.
‘The maps and attribute data’ section of the Finnish Atlas covers topics all the way from elevations to geology, soil, meteorology, vegetation and forest cover; population, gender distribution and density of population, and distribution of population by living area; language, religion, age, education etc. Also, the section covers topics such as agriculture, types of cultivated plants, domestic animals and cattle, as well as topics relating to hydro power, industry, exports, vehicles, railway traffic, telephone and post networks.
All in all, the Atlas consists of some fifty A3-size pages of thematic maps in hard covers. All the themes are printed in different colours, with a number of symbols describing the them. All the themes have been drawn on the map (spatial data), in order to locate the information.
In today's GIS maps, with layers of themes, information can be drawn and printed in a moment, the end result remaining the same. This gives a great deal of information which can be internalised at a glance.
In a topographical map, which is the type of map used mostly, there are also a number of ‘layers’ one never comes to think of. Elevations are shown by contour lines; roads, rivers, lakes, buildings, types of wood cover and cultivated land, in turn, are often the result of a different work phase, different physical layers of drawing or, today, different phases of the printing process. The legend (the attribute data) of a topographical map describes what each symbol or colour represents.
The modern printout is easier to take to the field for corrections and alterations. These revisions can be added to computerised databases.
Today's computer technology enables a quick analysis of information at different times, studying the changes in data, for instance, forest cover presently and 10 years ago.
GIS production is seldom a reason for a project of its own, but constitutes merely a support function for the actual project activities, providing information to support decision-making and reporting.
For phase I of the project, the geographical information gave basic data, maps and statistics. It provided a general look into the geography of the large project area. Furthermore, the geographic information provided knowledge of the roughly two hundred watersheds within the region, yielding data of factors relating to poverty. Essentially, it increased knowledge of the factors relating to environment and its management.
The geographical information was studied and collected from all the six countries. The information was first and foremost in the form of printed maps and statistical books, atlases, digital maps and data (attribute data). Also, it consisted of indexes of maps on different scales, covering the area of interest, and of general information, as well as aerial photographs and photo scales. In some countries, the photographed areas were shown on a map. However, the main challenge was to find out where to get information on the geographical information. A large part of the regional data was provided by the Mekong River Commission Secretariat (MRCS) in Phnom Penh and parts of it by United Nations Environment Programme, Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific (UNEP/EAP-AP) in Bangkok. After a search through a number of government agencies in each project country, an agency to provide the country data of the particular country was selected.
Due to the large number of data providers, the total process of data collection was wide and long. The whole issue of providing geographic information is still fairly new for both data providers and users.
As the digital data takes a lot of memory space, it was provided mainly on CD-ROMs and on a GIS laptop.
In order to comprehend the future objectives of the project, it is necessary to take a look at the documents describing the task and the distant yet concrete goals of the project.
What follows is an excerpt of the Project Document, stating the part of GIS in the project.
To achieve sustainable management of renewable resources and environment in watersheds of the Greater Mekong Sub-region by reducing poverty in remote communities. Phase I aims at creating a sub-regional forum for discussions and co-ordination of common approaches.
Project purpose (The GIS-related parts are in italics.)
Results expected of Phase I (GIS-wise)
Phase I of the project consists of three components. In order to indicate the role of GIS in each component, the three components are discussed briefly below.
GIS-wise, these include a study on the information systems supporting decision-making in watershed areas.
To increase the decision-making ability of the project in selecting watersheds.
To identify regionally representative, socio-economically poor or environmentally degraded or threatened watersheds for investment proposals in Phase II
The goals of the following phases are listed below. The goals are presented in the ADB RETA for Poverty Reduction and Environmental Management in Remote GMS Watersheds Project Document.
Phase II will include:
According to Annex 1 of the Project Document, the feasibility study will include some of the following:
In phase I of the Poverty Reduction & Environmental Management Project, watersheds within the region were selected. The total number of watersheds was approximately 170, located mainly in the Mekong and Lancang basins but also in the Red River Valley in the North of Viet Nam. At this phase, the map need was mainly thematic in nature. Maps that describe a certain theme on a small scale are tools for early planning.
The same data provided information in most single watershed studies. This information was strengthened by topographical maps, air photos and a GPS-receiver.
For the purposes of data collection, a list of topics was prepared. The list was included the topics that need to be considered in the first inventory and in the later phases of the project. The list is shown below:
Other data:
The data available varied from country to country.
Below is a brief description of the data available and collected in each country. The data consists of graphical and digital maps and attribute data. The idea was to adhere to as even and equal criteria as possible, which are as close as possible to the criteria set by the ToR and the Project Document.
The regional maps cover larger areas than one country. Most of them covered the Mekong Basin and the country boundaries only up to some extent.
Maps of Cambodia
Maps of Lao PDR
Maps of Thailand
Maps of Myanmar
Maps of Viet Nam
Maps of Yunnan, China
Data Catalogue, United Nations Environment Programme, Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pasific (UNEP/EAP-AP).
GIS data sets at the Mekong River Commission Secretariat, 4 pages
Catalogue of Mekong GIS dataset 1994.
In Cambodia
Forest cover monitoring project MRC/GTZ, technical notes 2, Interpretation and delineation from satellite images, by H-J Stibig. June 97.
Dataset catalogue/data availability, GIS office, Ministry of Environment, Cambodia
Maps and the attribute data could have, or have been, used in
In the process of data collection, the project had to accept what was available. In order to enable comparison, requests were made both on the most recent data and on earlier data on the same subject, for instance, forest cover in different years. This was not always possible.
The data was mainly provided on CD and, often, on the project GIS laptop.
Some of the data was especially produced for the project. This was the case particularly with the digitising of contour lines and watershed boundaries or river networks, used as a source for digital elevation model (DEM).
The table below is not intended to give a full listing of all the data that has been collected. Rather, it is an example of what is available.
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Topographical Data |
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Contours |
Rivers |
Lakes |
Roads |
Railways |
Villages |
Prov. Boundary |
County boundary |
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Cambodia |
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Y |
Y |
Y |
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Y |
Y |
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Myanmar |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
|
Lao PDR |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
N |
Y *01 |
Y |
Y |
|
Thailand |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
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Viet Nam |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
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Yunnan |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
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Y |
*
01: names of the villages appear unclear.Contours. In Myanmar and in Lao PDR, the contours are from 1:1 million scale (UNEP) on.
Rivers. The river network is divided into two categories: 1) the main rivers, like the main stream of Mekong / Lancang or the Red River and 2) the other smaller rivers.
Roads. Available on all countries. There is variation in road classes but the data provide a good look into the general road network. Feeder roads may not be covered but they are to be checked and "mapped" during Phase II anyway.
Administrative Units. Categories: Province/County/District/Amphoe/Village. The data collection unit varies from country to country. In China, it is based on counties, in other countries on provinces and even on smaller units, as in Thailand on Amphoes, and in Vietnam on villages.
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By countries |
Socio-economic data |
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Population |
GDP |
Poverty |
Ethnic minorities |
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Cambodia |
Y / province |
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Y |
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Myanmar |
Y |
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Lao PDR |
Y / district |
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Y |
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Thailand |
Y / amphoe |
Y |
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Y |
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Viet Nam |
Y / village |
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Yunnan |
Y / county |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Gross Domestic Product.
In Cambodia, rise production.Poverty. In Yunnan, poverty is determined differently: a village is classified as poor when the GDP is less than the county average, given a number of such villages in each county.
Ethnic minorities. Most countries have attribute data on their ethnic minorities.
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Environmental Data |
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Forest cover |
Watershed class |
Land use |
Agricultural land |
Shifting cultivation |
Soils |
Geology |
Meteorology |
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|
Cambodia |
Y |
Y / 250 |
Y |
Y |
Y |
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Myanmar |
Y |
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Y |
Y |
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|
Lao PDR |
Y / 250 |
Y / 250 |
Y, old |
Y |
Y |
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Thailand |
Y |
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Y |
Y |
|
Y |
Y |
Y |
|
Viet Nam |
Y |
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Y |
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|
Y |
|
Yunnan |
Y |
|
Y |
Y |
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|
|
Forest cover. There are several forest covers. The Mekong Basin is covered by the MRCS/GTZ-FCMP (Forest Cover Monitoring Project) data, which is based on satellite images. The coverages are from 1992-1993 and 1996-1997. At the time of the data requesting process, only the first one was completed. The coverage of the Mekong Basin refers to all of Cambodia, Lao PDR and Thailand, and to two provinces of Viet Nam Central Highlands, the watersheds of Se San and Sre Pok. China is covered by a county-based estimate of forest covers: dense forest and sparse forest covers. It is given in km² and in %. Also, an estimate of wood volume is available. Forest cover is also provided through land use data. The FCMP data also describes areas of shifting cultivation which is of great interest to the project.
Watershed classes. Watershed classes are available on the same area as the FCMP. The classification is the product of MRCS/Swiss WSCP (Watershed Classification Project). The classes describe the classification of forest in relation to elevation. Class 1 refers to high hill tops, class 2 to slopes down, class 3 to commercial forest, and classes 4 and 5 to agricultural land. For the use of the project classes 1 to 3 are available with the forest cover.
Land Use. The data on land use data vary from country to country. The main data used relate to forest cover and agricultural land. These data are needed to find out the size of agricultural land within a watershed.
Agricultural land. Obtained through land use data.
Shifting cultivation. Information is available in some land use data, mainly in the FCMP data.
Soil. Some of the project countries had information on soil (Northern Thailand).
Geology. Available for Northern Thailand
Meteorology. Available for some countries (Viet Nam, Thailand).
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|
Watershed Boundary |
Protected Areas |
Factories |
Dams |
Planned Dams |
Mines |
Highways |
TopoMap Indexes |
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|
Cambodia |
Y |
Y |
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|
Y |
|
Y |
Y |
||
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Myanmar |
Y |
Y |
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|
|
Y |
|
||
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Lao PDR |
Y |
Y |
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|
|
|
|
Y |
||
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Thailand |
Y |
Y |
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|
|
|
Y |
Y |
||
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Viet Nam |
Y |
Y |
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|
|
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||
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Yunnan |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
Y |
||
Watershed boundaries The data on Mekong Basin were provided regionally, whilst the data. on Lancang and Red River were national. Lancang watersheds were made using the elevation and river network information. In Myanmar the river network and contours were digitised from one-inch maps.
Protected areas. Wildlife sanctuaries etc. Data available for all countries.
Factories. The information was available for Yunnan only.
Dams. Data on dams was available only for the main stream of Lancang in Yunnan.
Planned dams. Data available only for the main stream of Lancang in Yunnan.
Mines. Information on mines only available for Yunnan.
Highways. The current highways were digitised on some maps. Also, information of ADB Asian highway plans is available.
Topographical map indexes. Map indexes either show the extent of map scales (Yunnan) or the whole grid of map sheets, from where one can pick up the number of a given map sheet.
In the case of Yunnan, the project identified four watersheds. The steps taken to identify the watersheds depended, by and large, on the data available. No direct data on the watersheds was available. All the data prepared originated from the Lancang Environmental Master Plan, which incorporated maps and statistics on the whole of Yunnan, on a county basis. Watersheds (sub-catchments) were digitised using contour lines and river system information. A digital terrain model (DTM) was prepared making use of contour information.
Protected areas and several present or planned investment project locations were added to the DTM. The investement projects included completed dams, mid- and long-term dam plans, mines, as well as paper mills.
It was estimated that as counties are relatively small units in Yunnan, they provide a sufficiently good estimate for map preparation.
The poverty aspect was approached through village welfare status and population density indexes. The GDP per county was also available, but the values chosen for this data collection were estimated to give a more accurate result.
Environmental factors from existing data were selected to show a forest cover of some 40% (the average being 38% of county coverage), which also indicates critical factors endangering forest management. For this work, two critical factors were selected: potential for erosion 20% (the average is 31% within the counties), and steep sloped areas 35%, with more than 25-degree slopes (the average being 42% within the counties).
The final percentages (forest, erosion, slope) were decided after a number of test analyses.
By these criteria, most of the terrain is bound to be mountainous, but the final identification was still compared to the digital terrain model, prepared by YEIC (Yunnan Environmental Information Centre).
For the purpose of sound decision-making of the RETA 5771, maps on different subjects were prepared and printed-out.
The data listed provided information in the case of most of the watershed studies, strengthened by topographical maps, air photos and a GPS-receiver. Most of the digital maps and attribute data were run by means of an ArcView GIS programme.
The data for each country was prepared in organisations that possess ArcInfo programmes. Given the cost of these programmes, this was a sound approach.
The map library is in the form of a GIS folder. The ArcView maps are copied as document files but they can also be converted into other programme forms that meet the standards required at given times.
In what follows, a few samples from the map library are presented:
Satellite images were not, directly, used in the project, as this would have required the appropriate data - which is too expensive - and software. On the other hand, satellite images were often used as a basis in the data that was purchased for the project. The largest one of these is the FCMP database.
The satellite images within the area can be obtained from Thailand Remote Sensing Centre in Bangkok.
Aerial photography and photo enlargements were used as the Rapid Rural Appraisal work began. The aerial photos will be useful material during the feasibility study, as well as during the implementation phase, depending on the type of activities that will take place.
Aerial photographs are available on the whole project area; only the ages and scales vary. The aerial photos are not indexed in this report, as finding out about the areas and scales in each country would be another small project of its own. Indexes are best found in each national mapping agency where one has to buy a photo, which is then printed or enlarged.
Topographical maps still constitute the basic tool when approaching any task having anything to do with geographic information. The topographical maps are available in different scales. They provide a first overall glimpse to the project area. The topographical maps can be obtained from the National Mapping Agencies in each country. The procedure of obtaining them, as well as delivery times may vary from country to country.
Old maps used to contain information on routes, and features of topography that had a strategic importance for those in power at the time. Rulers and emperors used to be the only ones who had a map or access to maps ¾ i.e., access to information and power.
Today, citizens can make their travel plans making use of maps that are available free of charge, on the Internet.
In the project countries, information – where it exists and is available - is disseminated through various agencies and organisations. There is no central agency where to make enquiries. As far as uncompleted data is concerned, it would be recommendable that also this kind of data be available as it may still prove valuable and cost-saving.
Below is a list of contacts for obtaining geographical information in each project country.
Chamkarmon, Phnom Penh. Fax. 855 23 427 844
As the issue of copyright has been up a few times during the data collection, it seems necessary to say a few words of it. It is necessary to point out, however, that this report does not intend to cover widely the legalities of copyright or intellectual property rights (IPR), but takes merely a look into the matter from a practical point of view.
Normally, the data is handed over to the recipient (user) organisation, to be used for project purposes. If the user wants to give or sell the data away as such or after modifications, the original data owner should be approached for permission. The same applies to (commercial) publishing of such data. If a digital map is created into an entirely new product, the ownership to the original data must be mentioned (© or source of data). Appreciating copyrights also conveys to the recipient that the maps and the data belong originally to some other instance.
Knowledge of the procedures of obtaining a permission to use maps/data lowers the threshold to ask for it, particularly when the procedure is smooth and inexpensive. Also, legal consequences may occur if maps are printed without mentioning the holder of copyright.
In many countries, government agencies are nowadays run as result-making units with net budgeting in mind. They are expected to make profit - up to some extent. With projects like RETA 5771, financed by donor governments, making profit is not the intention. It seems to be a general line taken by donor-funded projects that the data is freely available. Most organisations charge a fee for handling and sending the data, which seems reasonable enough. There is however, some work to be done to make such free data easier to obtain.
The pricing policies for geographical data, financed publicly, should be unified. The process of pricing and making the data available should aim at a kind of widespread information market, instead of being a market merely for experts. This only retards the general progress and flow of information.
Organising data delivery should begin with available information. In addition, the order form should state both the technical details, using transparent terminology, and prices in a clear manner. At the end, the producer / owner of the data should be mentioned. This is, of course, also the case if the product is developed further. Also, a geographical data description directory, including descriptions of datasets, should be available via the Internet. One would assume that this type of new openness pays back in the form of more prudently planned projects, cost-efficient development and sound management.
A good example of how to use the Internet for these purposes is seen at the web site of UNEP/EAP-AP where their data catalogue is available. Ordering on the net works well and the data is delivered to the user by EMS in the course of a few days after ordering.
The modern project preparation involves tools such as EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment), RGA (Rapid Gender Analysis) and Institutional Analysis. Not only in analysing the feasibility of a project, but also in approaching the practical implementation, geographical information might bring new insights into the preparation phase and also affect positively the results of the project, not least in the economic sense. Depending on the scope of the project, a study or an analysis of geographical information in the early stage of the preparation phase would provide either basic information, needed in project preparation, or/and large amounts of supporting information to tackle a specific task of the project.
In the case of an environmental project, there are different measures to choose from. A project encompassing a large area, as for instance RETA 5771 does, needs a wide coverage of maps and data. Due to elevation corrections, high hills require different data than does flat terrain. The information used for executing a project of this type is, usually, detailed and large-scale. Often, a long period of time is needed for preparation.
Planning an irrigation system in the Cambodian flat plateau may require accurate levelling, whereas identifying the crop of poppy can well be done using aerial photography. This is due to the fact that the monitoring can be done making use of satellite imageries. The accuracy ranges from millimetres up to ten metres or more.
For erosion control, i.e., to estimate the factors of erosion there is the gradient of a slope. Large mountain ranges can be studied by means of satellite images, but going back to watershed scale, it is the aerial photography and photogrammetric mapping that best define the slope.
For a thorough preparation phase, one is inclined to stress the importance of the following tools: field survey, satellite technology, aerial photography, topographical or cadastral mapping and thematic mapping. All these tools fall under the umbrella of Geographic Information, or Geoinformatics, as this field of study also is called.
Geographical information, whatever form it may take, should be made freely available for all development projects, schools, educational establishments etc., if it has been funded internationally. This sort of open policy should be adhered to in engaging in all project agreements and contracts. However, this is not to say that everything that exists should be available completely free of charge. There should be a charge covering the expenses of data handling, map printing, photo processing and enlarging, and printing out of maps and excerpts. This would, perhaps, require arranging the tasks of the data-producing organisations in such a way that the stages of data-handling, decision-making and sales of data are appointed to an organisation or organisational level which is able to guarantee an efficient and prompt service. Indeed, obtaining data should not cause overwhelming trouble for a data user.
General transparency, and an easy public access to geographical data leads to a wider understanding of maps, to a wider use of maps and, inevitably, to better and more economical planning.
In addition to regional data providers, there should also be a central agency in each country. As the national organisations provide data to regional suppliers, it should be possible for them, in exchange, to provide regional data.
In earlier reporting, National Mapping Agencies (NMAs) have been almost forgotten. Today, NMAs are responsible for national mapping, which is done using modern methods, i.e., aerial photography. Aerial photographs and topographical maps or orthomaps are also the tools of project execution.
NMAs are also responsible for geodetic networks (horizontal and vertical) of a country. All the GIS-related activities should be tied to a national or regional co-ordinate system, otherwise agreed upon. Before going ahead with any GIS activities, the advisable co-ordinate system should be enquired from the local NMA.
Also, NMAs increasingly – with some exceptions – use the most modern equipment which means that they are able to provide highly sophisticated products. Computerised stereo plotters, ortho-projectors, photo enlargers and printing facilities are used by NMAs. The agencies have indexed information on all their products.
One of the highways of the new open approach, or transparency, mentioned several times earlier, is the Internet. A number of examples of geographical information can be found on the net. Some are free of charge, some are available for a fee.
To smoothen the process of obtaining data for development projects, as much data as possible should be made available through the Internet. At the very least, all the organisations providing geographical information should have available, on the web, indexes and relevant technical information on the data, as well as clear instructions on how to purchase the data and how it is delivered. This would make it possible to plan on data, and make it possible to know, in advance, when the data is available and workable in the project.
As mentioned above, arranging the coordination of data so that it is collected, delivered, handled, printed, developed and delivered only by a few organisations might well guarantee an income that would ensure a certain standard, required of such services.
The points listed here are made aware of the long timespan needed to provide such large-scale information, which is required in the planning and management of feasibility studies and investment projects.
Although the difficulties of obtaining geographical information are well known, as stated also in the reports of RETA 5622 (SEMIS), there is still reason for optimism.
At the point when commercial satellite images are about to reach the resolution of small-scale (1:60 000) aerial photographs, there is really no need to be secretive about geographical information. Also, we are constantly getting closer to the idea of an information market, mentioned above, where data is available not only to experts but to all possible users of the Internet. Looking at the rapid developments taking place elsewhere in this field, one can claim that we are not far away from this. Enabling easy access to data and maps would not only improve the financial situation of governmental agencies, but it would also increase the general knowledge of maps. This is which is bound to improve the status of planning in the different areas of society.
With their new technology, national mapping agencies should be involved more closely with GIS-related functions. Besides the existing small-scale data, NMAs have new facilities to provide novel information. As mentioned, NMAs are responsible for aerial photography and mapping. Today, this means larger scales, colour or infra red photography, ortho-photos, digital photos, digital maps, and facilities for enlarging air photos.
In most countries, NMAs are also involved in cadastral mapping and land registration, which is the source of data for land ownership. This has been found out to be an important factor in land management. Also, NMAs define the co-ordinate system in each country. As pointed out earlier, this is the first thing to consider when a new GIS is established.
Things to consider in SEMIS:
Perhaps appropriate support to agencies within the region, who are capable and willing to make their data available via the Internet, would increase the general use of geographical information. Such developments would take us closer to the idea of an information market and would, at the same time, enhance the level of planning in different fields of activity.
Thematic maps-maps that describe a theme, e.g. population numbers
Atlas - a book of maps and charts with statistics
Digital maps - computer maps
Attribute data - statistical data attached to a map, stored in tabular form in a database which is linked to the map. Attribute data may refer to size (area), name, number, description or classification.
