Frithjof Kuhnen (1996):
Synthesis of Current State of and Trends in Land Tenure and Land Policy in Asia

3.1 Influences of Land Tenure on Projects and Programmes

Land tenure in a region is institutionalized, that is, it is rigid and difficult to change, at least only by means of efforts that are beyond a project's or programme's possibilities. The existing land tenure must be taken for granted like the soil, the climate, etc. Like these, land tenure has to be identified and assessed as to its impact on the projects and on their goals.

Land tenure can perhaps be adjusted. This is unlikely in view of its rigidity but could be feasible if important changes in agricultural production are introduced. The introduction of irrigation is an example which is pertinent enough to allow changes to be made in land tenure as a prerequisite of a project. Otherwise adaptations usually occur in connection with land reform.

Alternatively, the project might be adjusted by using another strategy, for instance. This usually goes along with limitations to the ideal project goals if the hindrances involved in land tenure are stronger.

Sometimes, land tenure cannot be changed. This usually means that certain projects cannot be implemented, at least not for the time being. In the long run, circumstances might become attenuated.

Land tenure affects projects and programmes in different ways:

• Tenure affects the access to resources

• Tenants have limited rights to resources.
• The land owned by smallholders is insufficient to allow the cultivation of crops beyond the requirements for livelihood.
• It is difficult for smallholders to obtain services and inputs.
• Smallholders are cheated when water is distributed.
• Active young people are only allotted land when they are older.
• Large landowners sometimes do no fully use their land but do not hand it over to the needy.
• Women do much work but have no control over land and do not earn an income.
• Outcasts and foreigners are only granted minor land rights.

• Land tenure affects whoever is willing and able to participate in projects and programmes

• Tenants cannot participate without their landlord's agreement.
• Smallholders cannot afford the expenses involved.
• Smallholders cannot bear the risks involved.
• Their status prevents landowners from engaging in manual work outside agriculture.
• Outcasts are not allowed to benefit from the achievements.
• Trees are not to be planted on common land.
• Smallholders do not own land beyond subsistence requirements.
• Information is unevenly spread.
• Families engaged in multi-employment have a limited interest in agriculture.
• Smallholders may lack the necessary abilities and entrepreneurship.
• Women are not allowed to participate.

• Land tenure affects the distribution of benefits

• Smallholders are late innovators and miss windfall profits.
• Economies of scale favor large landowners.
• Share tenants obtain only half of the benefits.
• Tenants are not allowed to use facilities (schools).
• Tenants may have no use for project achievements (roads, marketing institutions).
• Project activities may be biased towards large owners (an outlet for water in drinking water schemes, etc.).
• Changes occur in the distribution of benefits after the project has been terminated.
• Larger landowners have larger benefits from whatever improvements on account of the scale of their farm.
• Benefits are distributed to men only.