Frithjof Kuhnen (1996):
Synthesis of Current State of and Trends in Land Tenure and Land Policy in Asia

2.3.1 Increase in Production and Productivity

Certain - not all - areas in Asia experienced a remarkable increase in production and productivity in the past. This is not only, but to a great extent, a consequence of the 'Green Revolution' (new seeds, fertilizer, irrigation, mechanization). The degree to which agriculturists could apply these new technologies depends on the availability of the prerequisites, water in the first place. Non-irrigated areas are more or less excluded. In some regions, irrigation has been made possible due to the construction of tubewells, etc., but, by and large, dry areas are omitted.

Besides water availability, the following factors are mainly concerned:

• Access to Services

Farmers require information and advice on the new technologies, cooperatives for delivery and marketing of products, credit to purchase the expensive inputs, etc. All of these were unevenly available to tenure groups. Usually, the factors were at the disposal of the large owners while the smallholders and the tenants were not provided the required services. Thus, applying modern technology entailed more risks, and the incentive and possibility to participate in farming along modern lines were reduced.

• Freedom of Management

Tenants, especially sharecroppers, are often not free to make decisions regarding management but are rather workers restricted by their landlord's instructions. The lease of some of them was terminated because the landowner wanted to change to self-cultivation. Prices and changes in prices and subsidies caused the unknown technology to entail more risks still and reduced whatever incentive there may have been.

The 'Green Revolution' is considered a proof that agricultural development is possible without land reforms, costly under financial and political aspects. This is correct as long as agricultural development is understood as being equal to production increase. Even then, it is rather a rise to a higher level than a real development. In view of the regional limitation to irrigated areas and to the more prosperous sections of the rural society, one can hardly speak of development. This does not intend to limit the positive impact on production which put an end to the period of food shortage. In addition, the above-mentioned strata-specific impact of the 'Green Revolution' shows the limitation of the technological innovations.

Another consequence concerns the question of productivity of different farm sizes. According to the prevailing dogma, small holdings have a higher productivity than larger farms. But it is doubtful whether this holds true under conditions of cultivation when advanced technology is applied. Experience shows that modern agriculture requires not only the application of one modern technology but constantly changing technologies. These are available, but the owners of small holdings have difficulty in coping with them, intellectually and financially. Today, it seems that the medium farms have the highest productivity. This is partly influenced by the fact that some of the small farms belong to families employed not only on the farm but also in non-agricultural work and which have various interests. However, this varies much between regions.

In this connection, it is worth mentioning that an expansion of cultivated areas in most Asian countries is no alternative. With few exceptions, there is no unused but (economically) cultivable land, and attempts to cultivate easily will entail ecological dangers. As far as improvements in land productivity are concerned, the picture is somewhat different. Especially an expansion of the irrigated area and an improvement in the quality of the existing irrigation are possible in quite a number of regions.