Frithjof Kuhnen (1996):
Synthesis of Current State of and Trends in Land Tenure and Land Policy in Asia

2.2.4 Gender Differences in the Economic Situation

There are remarkable differences in the economic situation in men's and women's life. These differences are difficult to classify because they vary between individuals, families, strata, religious groups and countries.

They are partly the consequence of different control over land and other assets. Most of the land is in the men's hands and, even if it is inherited or registered by women, it is not usual that men decide upon these assets. However, conditions vary widely. In principle, Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism prefer partition in inheritance, but with a preferential treatment of sons. These have to look after their parents when the latter grow old, and that system tried to keep the land within the family.

But state laws regulating inheritance have interfered with traditional, religiously determined systems, and local customs play a role as well. The result is a mixture of customs, regulations and behaviour in determing the actual inheritance process. Women sometimes inherit equal shares, sometimes only half of the men's share. In praxis, it is not unusual that girls 'feel ashamed to take from their brothers that which belongs to these,' i.e., they do not accept land.

Of equal importance is the decision making regarding assets. Sometimes, the men act as trustees of their wives' assets, sometimes, they consult or have to consult their wives, while, in still other cases, the women decide more or less autonomously upon their property. Under all these aspects, there is often quite a discrepancy between actual behaviour and the existing law.

Equally wide is the difference in participation in gainful employment. Strict Islamic rules require women to stay within their home all the time while, in other societies, women participate in all kinds of activities, locally or even abroad, away from their family. Increasing multi-employment usually means more agricultural work for women because men are absent most of the time. In the case of 'guest workers,' this applies the more. Here, it brings to women greater independence in decision making and control over assets and income.